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There               are               many               branches               of               psychology               from               which               to               chose               from,               so               it               is               essential               to               understand               exactly               what               activities               each               field               of               psychology               does,               and               what               skills               one               must               possess               if               they               wish               to               pursue               a               career               in               that               field.

The               intention               of               this               paper               is               to               discuss               the               activities               of               a               clinical               psychologist,               and               the               skills               essential               to               a               clinical               psychology.

The               first               thing               to               understand               is               exactly               what               a               clinical               psychologist               is.

A               clinical               psychologist               is               a               psychologist               who               deals               with               the               diagnosis               and               treatment               side               of               mental               health.

Unlike               a               psychiatrist,               a               clinical               psychologist               cannot               prescribe               medication,               but               instead               uses               therapy               methods               (possible               in               conjunction               with               medication)               in               order               to               treat               presenting               problems               in               patients               who               come               in,               are               referred,               or               are               hospitalized.

Within               these               settings               clinicians               provide               psychotherapy,               assess               and               diagnose               patients,               conduct               consultations,               and               complete               administrative               duties.

Some               clinicians               also               find               a               career               in               teaching               psychology               or               other               subject               matter;               provide               consultations               for               criminal               justice               institutions,               schools,               or               corporate               offices;               research               and               write.
               In               order               to               conduct               these               duties,               clinical               psychologists               attend               a               total               of               nine               years               of               higher               level               education.

This               includes               a               four               year               bachelor's               degree               and               five               years               of               graduate               training,               the               latter               part               of               a               graduate               student's               education               includes               the               one               year               internship               required               for               program               completion.

This               nine               years               of               schooling               generally               outputs               Ph.D               or               Psy.D               graduates.

These               nine               year               programs               are               more               popular               than               the               two               year               master's               degree               due               to               the               lower               concentration               of               jobs               available               for               master's               level               graduates.

Instead,               more               graduates               end               up               working               toward               a               Ph.D               or               Psy.D               in               order               to               gain               more               opportunities               for               clinical               work               or               independent               office               practice.

However,               according               to               Trull               (2002),               the               master's               degree               is               actually               in               growing               demand               due               to               the               lower               fees               master's               level               clinicians               charge               (pg               19).

As               such,               masters               holders               pose               a               an               interesting               alternative               to               the               more               expensive               doctoral               degree               holders.

However,               this               does               end               up               posing               the               question               of               whether               or               not               the               master's               hold               is               actually               a               psychologist               (the               APA               maintains               that               the               term               "psychologist"               can               only               be               applied               to               doctoral               degree               holders),               and               whether               a               master's               degree               training               program               provides               enough               training               for               the               therapist.
               A               typical               Ph.D               program               entails               coursework               including               statistics,               research               design,               developmental               psychology,               biological               foundations               of               behavior,               cognitive               psychology,               and               social               psychology,               among               other               essential               courses               for               a               strong               basis               of               understanding               in               psychology.

Additionally,               students               are               given               ample               time               to               learn               through               working.

This               form               of               learning               is               called               practicum               work.

Practicum               work               is               conducted               in               a               clinic               offered               by               the               school               or               somewhere               in               the               community,               both               of               which               are               supervised               by               either               a               clinical               faculty               member,               or               a               clinical               psychologist               from               the               community.

Both               of               the               aforementioned               locations               also               offer               practicum               work               in               the               area               of               assessment,               therapy,               and               consulting               services.

In               a               university               clinic               cases               are               generally               taken               based               on               the               teaching               value               of               each               (Trull,               2002,               pg               21).
               Research               is               also               a               typical               part               of               the               Ph.D               program.

This               area               of               the               program               is               also               where               the               Ph.D               and               the               Psy.D               differ.

Psy.D               programs               typically               place               less               emphasis               on               research,               and               more               on               techniques               and               methods               of               therapy.

For               those               students               in               a               Ph.D               program               research               skills               are               gained               through               research               methodology,               statistics,               and               computer               courses.

Students               are               also               charged               with               participating               is               research               projects               meant               to               teach               students               about               conducting               and               designing               research.

Research               is               also               generally               tied               to               the               student's               dissertation,               although               this               does               vary               by               school               and               program.
               During               the               third               year               of               the               program               students               must               take               a               qualifying               examination.

The               contents               of               the               qualifying               exam               differ               by               program,               but               clinical               psychology               or               overall               psychology               is               tested.

These               exams               are               a               huge               part               of               the               doctoral               program               in               that               they               test               the               competence               of               a               student,               it               is               a               way               of               looking               into               the               future               a               student               may               have               in               the               field.

As               such,               it               is               also               an               exam               that               creates               a               great               deal               of               anxiety               for               doctoral               students.
               Lastly,               graduate               students               take               part               in               an               internship               program.

The               internship               program               is               chosen               by               the               student,               but               must               be               accredited               by               the               American               Psychological               Association               to               be               applicable               for               credit.

The               internship               is               an               essential               part               of               the               program               in               that               it               provides               a               great               deal               of               experience               for               the               student.

Student's               are               charged               with               working               in               a               clinical               setting               of               some               sort,               timing               varies               with               modern               programs,               yet               the               idea               behind               them               is               the               same.

Students               are               exposed               to               real-life               situations               that               will               enhance               their               competence               in               handling               these               situations               during               their               career               life.

Essentially,               this               area               of               the               program               is               a               long-term               extension               of               practicum               work               in               that               students               build               a               strong               basis               in               hands-on               work               that               reflects               the               sort               of               cases               one               would               see               as               a               certified               clinician.

Learning               is               enhanced               and               the               culmination               of               the               entire               doctoral               program               is               successful               completion               of               internship.
               References:
               Hershey,               J.,               Kopplin,               D.,               &               Cornell,               J.

(1991,               October).

Doctors               of               Psychology:               Their               career               experiences               and               attitudes               toward               degree               and               training.

Professional               Psychology:               Research               and               Practice,               22(5),               351-356.

Retrieved               July               14,               2007,               from               PsycARTICLES               database.
               Trull,               T.

(2005).

Clinical               Psychology,               7th               Edition.

Belmont,               CA.

Thomson               Wadsworth.
               West               Chester               University.

(n.d).

Careers               in               Clinical               and               Counseling               Psychology.

Retrieved               July               20,               2007,               from               http://www.wcupa.edu/_academics/sch_cas.psy/Career_Paths/Clinical/Career03.htm
               Wisocki,               P.,               Grebstein,               L.,               &               Hunt,               J.

(1994,               November).

Directors               of               clinical               training:               An               insider's               perspective.

Professional               Psychology:               Research               and               Practice,               25(4),               482-488.

Retrieved               July               14,               2007,               from               PsycARTICLES               database.






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    A               social               phobia               is               a               generalized               fear               of               social               settings.

    A               person               has               imagined               and               false               views               that               others               are               overly               concerned               with               them.

    It               is               an               extreme               case               of               self-consciousness.

    Social               paranoia               can               stem               from               past               negative               experiences.

    Exposure               is               the               best               medicine.

    Some               solutions               to               social               paranoia               or               to               anxiety               can               include:
                   Number               one               the               best               medicine               is               to               out               to               a               park               and               walk;               see               other               people               minding               their               own               business.

    And               finally               see               that               the               fears               are               only               in               your               head.
                   Two               one               should               engage               in               a               social               setting               with               another               person               or               one               self,               sit               down               for               a               cup               of               coffee               at               a               Star               Bucks.
                   Third               one               can               go               to               a               bookstore               or               a               library               and               just               hang               out               for               an               hour.

    An               anxious               person               will               see               how               everyone               is               relaxed               and               really               only               concerned               with               themselves               and               the               books               they               are               reading.
                   Fourth               you               can               take               a               fitness               course               like               yoga,               Tai               chi,               step               aerobics,               or               kick               boxing.

    One               will               see               how               everyone               is               focused               on               their               own               bodies               and               their               fitness.
                   Fifth               one               can               make               small               talk               or               conversation               with               others.

    This               can               be               a               fellow               classmate,               store               keepers,               waiters,               etc.

    Just               break               the               ice;               you               don't               have               to               be               so               serious               all               the               time.

    People               are               people               and               they               like               to               connect               with               others.

    We               live               in               one               giant               community               of               people               it               doesn't               really               matter               where               you're               from;               we're               all               connected               as               members               of               the               human               race,               and               children               of               the               planet.
                   Sixth               a               person               can               enroll               in               an               academic               class.

    Here               one               will               become               mindful               of               their               studies               and               see               how               each               student               is               focused               on               learning               and               getting               good               grades;               they               don't               care               about               what               the               other               student               is               like.

    They               want               to               get               a               degree               or               certificate               or               piece               of               paper               that               says               they               are               competent               to               teach,               practice,               or               work               in               a               particular               field               because               they               have               a               thorough               education               or               indoctrination               in               that               methodology               or               subject               matter.
                   Seventh               a               person               can               attend               a               comedy               club               and               laugh               their               head               off.

    Comedy               really               breaks               the               ice               for               people               who               are               socially               paralyzed.

    Come               unstuck,               laugh               at               the               foibles               at               others,               and               one               self;               see               how               stupid               it               is               to               be               so               worried               about               a               million               random               thoughts,               other               people's               opinions               and               your               own               silly               ideas.
                   Eighth               go               to               an               orchestra               or               a               party               and               have               a               drink.

    Don't               over               do               it,               have               one               drink               and               learn               to               just               relax               and               be               around               others.
                   Ninth               just               walk               around               your               neighborhood               if               your               too               timid               to               venture               out               of               your               home               surroundings.

    Exercise               boosts               serotonin               levels,               which               will               improve               your               attitude               towards               everything.

    It's               a               feel               good               neurotransmitter.
                   Tenth               invite               a               good               friend               over               for               some               small               talk               or               conversation.
                   You               may               ask               yourself               why               do               I               have               social               paranoia?

    Usually               it               stems               from               experiences               in               the               past               that               were               negative,               while               around               others.

    This               can               be               a               past               social               embarrassment,               a               person               who               was               a               worrier               as               a               child,               or               a               person               with               low               self-esteem.

    Just               know               that               you               are               one               in               billions.

    There               will               never               be               anyone               like               you               and               you               should               be               proud               for               being               who               you               are.
                   As               one               can               see               from               the               ten               different               suggestions               to               relieve               social               anxiety               the               only               solution               to               paranoia               is               to               confront               what               one               is               paranoid               with.

    Once               the               person               sees               how               small               their               own               fears               are               and               how               other               people               in               society               are               only               concerned               with               their               own               wants               and               needs               and               could               not               care               less               about               other's;               their               fears               will               subside.

    Exposure               is               the               best               medicine               for               a               social               phobia,               hands               down.
                   Take               it               from               me               I               had               extreme               social               phobia               for               several               years               and               just               following               the               above               suggestions               made               a               world               of               difference               for               me.

    So               good               luck               and               start               facing               your               fears.






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    The               U.S.

    Department               of               Housing               and               Urban               Development               (HUD)               defines               "homeless"               as               --               (1)               an               individual               or               family               without               a               fixed,               regular,               and               adequate               nighttime               residence;               and               (2)               an               individual               or               family               with               a               primary               nighttime               residence               that               is:               A)               a               publicly-               or               privately-run               shelter               designed               to               provide               temporary               living               accommodations;               B)               an               institution               that               provides               a               temporary               residence               for               individuals               intended               to               be               institutionalized;               or               C)               a               public               or               private               place               not               designed               to               be               a               regular               sleeping               accommodations               for               people               (2006).

    Simply               put,               homelessness               refers               to               people               who               do               not               have               adequate,               safe,               and               consistent               shelter.

    Estimations               of               the               homeless               population               in               the               U.S               vary,               causes               of               homelessness               are               structural               and               deep-seated,               and               the               solutions               to               homelessness               would               require               a               nationwide               concerted               effort               to               make               fundamental               changes               in               the               structure               of               society               in               the               United               States.

    "People               who               are               homeless               are               not               social               inadequates.

    They               are               people               without               homes"               (McKechnie,               2006).

    Due               to               the               changing,               mobile,               and               often               hidden               nature               of               homelessness,               nobody               knows               with               certainty               how               many               homeless               there               are               in               America               (Coleman               &               Kerbo,               2006).

    Due               to               its               very               nature,               it               is               not               possible               to               measure               the               homeless               population               with               complete               accuracy.

    The               Census               Bureau               counted               228,621               in               a               nationwide               tally,               but               they               never               intended               to               count               them               all               and               that               number               is               believed               to               be               significantly               low               (Coleman               et               al.,               2006).

    The               National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               recognizes               a               study               done               by               the               National               Law               Center               on               Homelessness               and               Poverty               as               the               most               accurate               approximation               of               the               homeless               population;               the               study               states               that               "approximately               3.5               million               people,               1.35               million               of               them               children,               are               likely               to               experience               homelessness               in               a               given               year"               (2006).

    While               different               agencies               and               studies               have               resulted               in               different               numbers,               all               of               the               sources               agree               that               the               numbers               of               the               homeless               have               grown               significantly               in               recent               years               (Coleman               et               al.,               2006).

    However,               more               important               than               knowing               the               precise               number               of               people               who               experience               homelessness               is               our               progress               in               ending               it.
                   Homelessness               is               not               a               problem               specific               to               the               United               States.

    It               is               estimated               that               there               are               about               3               million               homeless               people               in               the               15               countries               of               the               European               Union               (Unicef,               1998).

    Philip               Alston,               Chairperson               of               the               UN               Committee               on               Economic,               Social               and               Cultural               Rights               since               1991               states               that               "[o]n               any               given               night,               three               quarters               of               a               million               people               in               the               United               States               are               homeless;               in               Toronto,               Canada's               largest               city,               6,500               people               stayed               in               emergency               shelters               on               a               typical               night               in               late               1997,               a               two-thirds               increase               in               just               one               year"               (Unicef,               1998).

    Homelessness               is               a               global               problem.
                   Who               are               the               homeless?

    Statistics               show               that               the               true               demographics               may               defy               common               expectations.

    The               homeless               population               consists               not               only               of               single               unemployed               men,               but               also               a               large               number               of               children,               single               mothers,               families,               veterans,               employed               workers,               and               gays               and               lesbians.

    While               most               studies               show               that               single               homeless               adults               are               more               likely               to               be               male               than               female,               the               National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               states               that               39%               of               the               homeless               population               was               comprised               of               children               under               the               age               of               18               in               2003.

    In               2004,               25%               of               the               homeless               were               ages               25               to               34               and               6%               were               55               to               64               (2006).

    Single               men               comprised               only               43%               of               the               homeless               population               (National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               [NCH],               2006).
                   Abused               women               who               live               in               poverty               often               must               choose               between               their               abusive               relationships               and               homelessness.

    In               a               study               of               777               homeless               parents               (mostly               mothers)               in               ten               U.S.

    cities,               22%               had               left               their               previous               home               due               to               domestic               violence               (NCH,               2006).

    A               2003               survey               of               100               homeless               mothers               in               10               locations               around               the               country               found               that               25%               of               the               women               had               been               physically               abused               in               the               last               year.

    Other               studies               show               that               nationally,               "approximately               half               of               all               women               and               children               experiencing               homelessness               are               fleeing               domestic               violence"               (NCH,               2006).

    Domestic               violence               should               be               considered               one               of               the               primary               causes               of               homelessness.
                   Families               with               children               are               among               the               fastest               growing               segments               of               the               homeless               population;               the               number               of               homeless               families               with               children               has               increased               considerably               over               the               past               decade               (NCH,               2006).

    Families               make               up               43%               of               the               homeless               population               (Coleman               et               al.,               2006)               and               research               indicates               that               single               mothers,               children,               and               families               comprise               the               largest               group               of               people               who               are               homeless               in               rural               areas               (NCH,               2006).

    The               sharpest               increases               in               the               homeless               population               have               been               among               women               and               children               (Coleman               et               al.,               2006).
                   Gays               and               lesbians               are               often               overlooked               in               the               homeless               population.

    However,               an               extensive               new               report               published               by               the               National               Gay               and               Lesbian               Task               Force               Policy               Institute               and               the               National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               reveals               that               there               is               an               epidemic               of               homelessness               among               lesbian,               gay,               bisexual               and               transgender               youth               (Ray,               2006).

    "[Their]               analysis               of               the               available               research               suggests               that               between               20               percent               and               40               percent               of               all               homeless               youth               identify               as               lesbian,               gay,               bisexual               or               transgender               (LGBT).

    Given               that               between               3               percent               and               5               percent               of               the               U.S.

    population               identifies               as               lesbian,               gay               or               bisexual,               it               is               clear               that               LGBT               youth               experience               homelessness               at               a               disproportionate               rate"               (Ray,               2006,               p.9).

    This               study               states               that               more               than               500,000               LGBT               youth               in               the               United               States               are               at               risk               of               homelessness               during               the               winter               of               2007               and               2008               (Ray,               2006).

    Homeless               LGBT               youth               experience               greater               risks               of               victimization               than               their               heterosexual               counterparts.

    "According               to               the               National               Runaway               Switchboard,               LGBT               homeless               youth               are               seven               times               more               likely               than               their               heterosexual               peers               to               be               victims               of               a               crime"               (Ray,               2006,               p.12).

    The               LGBT               homeless               are               a               significant               population.
                   It               can               be               surprising               to               learn               that               many               of               the               homeless               are               either               veterans               of               the               armed               forces,               employed,               or               both.

    Veterans               are               overrepresented               in               the               homeless               population.

    Research               indicates               that               34%               of               the               general               adult               male               population               has               served               in               the               armed               forces,               while               40%               of               homeless               men               are               veterans               (Coleman               et               al.,               2000).

    The               National               Coalition               for               Homeless               Veterans               estimates               that               on               any               given               night,               271,000               veterans               are               homeless               (NCH,               2006).

    Homeless               shelters               also               often               house               significant               numbers               of               full-time               wage               earners;               surveys               in               recent               years               have               yielded               the               percentage               of               homeless               working               to               be               as               high               as               26%               and               in               many               cities               and               states               the               percentage               is               estimated               to               be               even               higher               (NCH,               2006).

    It               is               evident               that               the               homeless               do               not               fit               one               general               description,               and               homelessness               crosses               many               social               boundaries.
                   There               are               numerous               causes               of               homelessness.

    These               include               lack               of               affordable               health               care,               decreased               public               assistance,               poverty,               low               wages,               poverty,               and               a               shortage               of               affordable               housing.

    "[P]eople               are               homeless               not               because               of               their               individual               flaws,               but               because               of               structural               arrangements               and               trends               that               result               in               extreme               impoverishment               and               a               shortage               of               affordable               housing"               (Timmer,               1994,               p.15).

    Simply               put,               a               household               becomes               homeless               when               it               can               no               longer               afford               housing.

    To               understand               why               some               poverty-stricken               people               experience               homelessness               and               some               do               not,               many               structural               dynamics               must               be               considered.
                   A               lack               of               affordable               health               care               results               in               homelessness               for               many               families.

    When               an               individual               or               a               family               is               already               struggling               to               pay               the               rent,               a               serious               health               issue               can               result               in               a               lost               job,               a               depletion               of               their               savings               to               pay               for               their               medical               care,               and               an               eventual               eviction.

    In               2004,               15.7%               of               the               U.S.

    population--approximately               45.8               million               Americans--had               no               health               care               insurance,               and               almost               a               third               of               those               living               in               poverty               had               no               health               insurance               of               any               kind               (NCH,               2006).

    A               lack               of               health               insurance               combined               with               an               illness               or               injury               can               easily               start               a               downward               spiral               into               homelessness.
                   The               reduction               in               the               availability               and               monetary               amounts               of               public               assistance               is               a               large               source               of               increasing               poverty               and               homelessness.

    The               Aid               to               Families               with               Dependent               Children               (AFDC)               program               used               to               be               the               largest               cash               assistance               program               for               poor               families               with               children               until               it               was               repealed               in               August               of               1996               and               replaced               with               a               block               grant               program               called               Temporary               Assistance               to               Needy               Families               (TANF)               (NCH,               2006).

    Currently,               Food               Stamps               and               TANF               benefits               combined               are               well               under               the               poverty               level               in               every               state.

    For               example,               for               a               single               parent               of               two               children               the               current               maximum               TANF               benefit               is               only               29%               of               the               federal               poverty               level               (Nickelson,               2004).

    Welfare               is               simply               not               enough               to               help               people               rise               above               poverty               in               the               United               States.
                   Poverty               and               homelessness               are               intrinsically               intertwined.

    Low               wages,               lack               of               affordable               housing               and               insufficient               housing               assistance               contribute               to               the               problem               of               homelessness               by               making               it               difficult               for               many               low-income               people               to               afford               housing.

    It               is               often               not               possible               for               poor               people               to               pay               for               housing,               childcare,               food,               education,               and               health               care               simultaneously;               when               their               limited               resources               cover               only               some               of               these               essentials,               they               are               forced               to               make               difficult               decisions.

    Since               housing               takes               such               a               high               proportion               of               their               income,               it               is               often               the               necessity               that               gets               sacrificed               (NCH,               2006).

    According               to               the               National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless,               "declining               wages               have               put               housing               out               of               reach               for               many               workers:               in               every               state,               more               than               the               minimum               wage               is               required               to               afford               a               one-               or               two-bedroom               apartment               at               Fair               Market               Rent"               (2006).

    On               average,               minimum-wage               workers               would               need               to               work               at               least               89               hours               weekly               to               be               able               to               afford               a               two-bedroom               apartment               at               30%               of               their               income-the               federal               definition               of               affordable               housing               (NCH,               2006).

    Clearly,               inadequate               income               leaves               many               people               homeless,               since               "being               poor               means               being               an               illness,               an               accident,               or               a               paycheck               away               from               living               on               the               streets"               (NCH,               2006).
                   The               federal               government               drastically               reduced               the               amount               of               money               spent               on               subsidized               housing               over               the               last               thirty               years,               which               has               significantly               contributed               to               the               problem               of               homelessness               (Coleman               et               al.,               2006).

    The               need               for               assisted               low-income               housing               surpasses               the               supply               by               far;               unfortunately,               only               about               one-third               of               low-income               households               receive               any               government               housing               subsidies,               and               the               other               two-thirds               go               without               (NCH,               2006).

    In               addition,               it               is               notable               that               the               National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               contends               the               following:
                   "[I]t               should               be               noted               that               the               largest               federal               housing               assistance               program               is               the               entitlement               to               deduct               mortgage               interest               from               income               for               tax               purposes.

    In               fact,               for               every               one               dollar               spent               on               low               income               housing               programs,               the               federal               treasury               loses               four               dollars               to               housing-related               tax               expenditures,               75%               of               which               benefit               households               in               the               top               fifth               of               income               distribution.

    In               2003,               the               federal               government               spent               almost               twice               as               much               in               housing-related               tax               expenditures               and               direct               housing               assistance               for               households               in               the               top               income               quintile               than               on               housing               subsidies               for               the               lowest-income               households.

    Thus,               federal               housing               policy               has               not               responded               to               the               needs               of               low-income               households,               while               disproportionately               benefiting               the               wealthiest               Americans"               (2006).
                   In               some               communities,               former               welfare               families               appear               to               be               experiencing               homelessness               in               increasing               numbers,               because               subsidized               housing               is               so               limited               and               housing               prices               are               so               high               that               "housing               is               rarely               affordable               for               families               leaving               welfare               for               low               wages"               (NCH,               2006).

    Coleman               and               Kerbo               assert               that               there               is               a               "critical               shortage"               of               low-cost               rental               housing               for               low-income               people               who               will               never               be               able               to               own               their               own               home               (2006).

    Millions               of               units               of               low-cost               housing               have               been               abandoned               or               converted               into               more               expensive               housing               in               recent               years;               over               a               million               'flophouse'               rooms               have               been               demolished               since               1970               (Coleman               et               al.,               2006).

    In               addition,               "the               average               cost               of               rental               housing               has               grown               twice               as               fast               as               the               average               income               of               renters"               (Coleman               et               al.,               2006,               p.

    413).

    Thus,               while               the               number               of               poor               people               has               been               growing,               the               supply               of               affordable               housing               has               been               shrinking               (Coleman               et               al.,               2006).
                   Unfortunately,               many               homeless               shelters               need               to               accommodate               those               on               the               excessive               waiting               lists               for               public               housing               for               months               at               a               time,               straining               the               shelters'               capacities.

    For               example,               New               York               homeless               families               in               the               mid-1990s               stayed               in               a               shelter               an               average               of               five               months               before               being               able               to               move               to               permanent               housing               (NCH,               2006).

    The               National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               reports               that               in               a               study               of               24               cities,               people               remained               homeless               an               average               of               seven               months,               and               87%               of               cities               reported               an               increase               of               the               length               of               time               people               are               homeless               in               recent               years.

    Longer               stays               in               homeless               shelters               can               result               in               less               shelter               space               becoming               available               for               other               homeless               people,               who               often               live               in               inadequate               housing               or               live               on               the               streets.
                   The               homeless               population               of               the               United               States               faces               an               increased               risk               of               many               hazards               that               their               housed               counterparts               do               not,               including               dangers               from               the               elements,               inadequate               food,               increased               risk               of               criminal               victimization               and               hate               crimes,               and               increased               health               problems.

    Authors               Coleman               and               Kerbo               point               out               that               "[l]ack               of               protection               from               the               elements               is               the               most               obvious               hardship               they               face"               (2006,               p.

    199)               Getting               enough               food               to               eat               is               also               a               constant               concern,               and               because               they               spend               so               much               time               out               on               the               streets,               the               homeless               are               easy               targets               for               both               violent               and               nonviolent               criminals               (Coleman,               2006).
                   The               homeless               experience               higher               rates               of               victimization               from               hate               crimes               and               violence               than               do               housed               people.

    In               February,               2007,               the               National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               released               a               105-page               publication               titled               Hate,               Violence,               and               Death               on               Main               Street               USA:               A               Report               on               Hate               Crimes               and               Violence               Against               People               Experiencing               Homelessness               2006               whichdetails               the               142               violent               crimes-including               beatings,               stabbings,               burnings,               and               rape--against               homeless               individuals               in               the               past               year,               the               highest               number               of               incidents               since               NCH's               annual               study               began               in               1999               (2007).

    This               past               year's               attacks               resulted               in               20               fatalities.

    Attacks               have               increased               65%               from               last               year,               and               over               170%               since               five               years               ago.

    (Hate,               Violence,               and               Death               [HV&D],               2007).

    This               report               strives               to               "educate               the               public               to               the               inhumanities               facing               America's               homeless               population"               and               has               played               a               role               in               getting               laws               protecting               the               homeless               passed               in               Maine               and               California               as               well               as               influencing               pending               legislation               in               California,               Florida,               Maryland,               Massachusetts,               Nevada               and               Texas               (HV&D,               2007).

    Between               1999               and               2005,               82               homicides               were               classified               as               hate               crimes               according               to               the               Center               for               the               Study               of               Hate               and               Extremism               at               California               State               University               San               Bernardino.

    Hate,               Violence,               and               Death               on               Main               Street               USA               reports               that               in               the               same               period               of               time               there               were               169               deaths               as               a               result               of               violent               acts               directed               at               homeless               people--more               than               twice               the               number               of               deaths               than               those               resulting               from               categorized               hate               crimes."               (2007).

    Michael               Stoopes,               Executive               Director               of               the               National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               (NCH)               asserts,               "It               is               NCH's               position               that               many               of               these               acts               should               be               considered               hate               crimes.

    Crimes               against               homeless               people               are               motivated               by               the               same               intolerance               as               hate               crimes               against               people               of               a               certain               religious,               racial,               or               ethnic               background"               (HV&D,               2007).

    According               to               the               National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless,               reported               incidents               of               attacks               against               homeless               people               are               increasing               and               have               reached               the               highest               level               in               years.
                   Health               problems               can               be               both               causes               and               effects               of               homelessness.

    For               example,               a               health               problem               may               prevent               someone               from               going               to               work,               which               results               in               lost               income               that               causes               them               to               be               unable               to               afford               housing.

    Once               homeless,               the               lack               of               shelter               and               proper               facilities               can               make               it               difficult               or               impossible               to               maintain               proper               hygiene               which               can               both               cause               and               worsen               illnesses.

    A               lack               of               shelter               increases               the               risk               of               parasites,               frostbite,               ulcers,               and               infections,               as               well               as               an               increased               risk               of               physical               and               psychological               trauma               from               muggings,               beatings,               and               rape               (Doak,               2006).

    The               homeless               suffer               twice               the               rate               of               depression               (41%)               as               the               general               population               (23%),               and               three               times               the               rate               of               chronic               bronchitis               and               emphysema               (22.7%)               (Doak,               2006).

    Experts               agree               that               the               homeless               suffer               from               more               types               of               illnesses               for               longer               periods               of               time,               with               more               harmful               consequences               than               housed               people,               and               health               care               delivery               is               also               complicated               by               the               homelessness               of               the               patient;               it               is               significantly               more               difficult               to               manage               diabetes,               tuberculosis,               HIV,               hypertension,               malnutrition,               severe               dental               problems,               addictive               disorders,               mental               disorders,               and               chronic               diseases               in               the               homeless               (Doak,               2006).

    In               addition,               "               
                   The               homeless               have               higher               mortality               rates               and               die               at               younger               ages               than               the               rest               of               the               population;               in               1997               the               average               age               of               death               for               the               homeless               was               43.3               years,               while               the               average               age               of               death               for               the               general               population               was               72.6               years               (Doak,               2006).

    Elements               of               homeless               life               that               encourage               early               death               include               exposure               to               extremes               of               weather               and               temperature,               crowded               shelter               living               which               can               increase               the               spread               of               communicable               diseases               like               tuberculosis               and               pneumonia,               violence,               high               frequency               of               medical               and               psychiatric               illnesses,               substance               abuse,               and               inadequate               nutrition               (Doak,               2006).

    Socioeconomic               conditions               contributing               to               the               prevalence               of               illness               and               early               death               in               the               homeless               population               include               poor               diet,               inadequate               sleeping               locations,               contagion               from               overcrowded               shelters,               limited               facilities               for               daily               hygiene,               exposure               to               the               elements,               exposure               to               violence,               social               isolation,               and               lack               of               health               insurance               (Doak,               2006).

    "There               is               a               growing               belief               in               the               health               care               field               that               homelessness               needs               to               be               considered               in               epidemic               terms-that               massive               increases               in               homelessness               may               result               in               a               hastened               spread               of               illness               and               disease,               overwhelming               the               health               care               system"               (Doak,               2006).
                   Homelessness               in               the               United               States               is               a               result               of               a               complex               set               of               events,               circumstances,               and               structural               characteristics               of               society               that               force               people               to               choose               between               health               care,               shelter,               food,               and               other               basic               needs.

    To               reduce               or               end               homelessness,               American               communities               need               to               make               a               collaborative               and               cooperative               attempt               to               ensure               nationwide               access               to               health               care,               jobs               that               pay               a               true               living               wage,               sufficient               public               support               for               those               unable               to               work,               and               especially               affordable               housing.

    Congressman               Dennis               Kucinich               aptly               states,               "We               have               weapons               of               mass               destruction               we               have               to               address               here               at               home.

    Poverty               is               a               weapon               of               mass               destruction.

    Homelessness               is               a               weapon               of               mass               destruction.

    Unemployment               is               a               weapon               of               mass               destruction"               (2007).
                   References
                   Coleman,               J.

    &               Kerbo,               H.

    (2006).

    Social               Problems               (9th               ed.).

    Upper               Saddle               River:
                   Pearson               Education,               Inc.
                   Doak,               M.

    (2006).

    Homeless               in               America:               How               Could               it               Happen               Here?

    Farmington               Hills:
                   Thomas               Gale.
                   Feldman,               L.

    (2004).

    Citizens               Without               Shelter.

    Ithica:               Cornell               University.
                   Hate,               Violence,               and               Death               on               Main               Street               USA:               A               Report               on               Hate               Crimes               and               Violence
                   Against               People               Experiencing               Homelessness               2006               (2007,               February).

    Retrieved               April               12,               2007               from
                   http://www.nationalhomeless.org/getinvolved/projects/hatecrimes/2006report_2.pdf
                   Industrialized               Countries:               Commentary:               Hardship               in               the               Midst               of               Plenty.

    (1998).
                   Retrieved               April               1,               2007,               from               http://www.unicef.org/pon98/indust1.htm
                   McKechnie,               S.

    (2006).

    Retrieved               April               7,               2007               from
                   http://thinkexist.com/quotes/sheila_mckechnie/
                   National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               Fact               Sheet               #1.

    (2006,               June).

    Retrieved               February               23,
                   2006,               from               http://www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/facts/Why.pdf
                   National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               Fact               Sheet               #2.

    (2006,               June).

    Retrieved               February               23,
                   2006,               from               http://www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/facts/How_Many.pdf
                   National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless               Fact               Sheet               #3.

    (2006,               June).

    Retrieved               February               23,
                   2006,               from               http://www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/facts/Whois.pdf
                   Nickelson,               Idara.

    "The               District               Should               Use               Its               Upcoming               TANF               Bonus               To               Increase               Cash
                   Assistance               and               Remove               Barriers               to               Work",               2004.

    D.C.

    Fiscal               Policy               Institute.
                   Available               at               www.dcfpi.org.
                   Ray,               N.

    (2006).

    Lesbian,               gay,               bisexual               and               transgender               youth:               An               epidemic               of
                   homelessness.

    New               York:               National               Gay               and               Lesbian               Task               Force               Policy               Institute
                   and               the               National               Coalition               for               the               Homeless.
                   Timmer,               D.

    A.,               Eitzen,               D.

    S.,               &               Talley,               K.D.

    (1994).

    Paths               to               Homelessness:               Extreme
                   Poverty               and               the               Urban               Housing               Crisis.

    Boulder:               Westview               Press,               Inc.
                   United               States               Department               of               Housing               and               Urban               Development.

    (2006,               October).

    Retrieved               April               7,               2007               from               http://www.hud.gov/homeless/index.cfm






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